A map of Alaska hung in the Oval Office during Jimmy Carter’s presidency. [1]
President Jimmy Carter fishing in Alaska in July 1980. Carter Presidential Library and Museum, White House Staff Photographers Collection
As the 39th president of the United States from 1977 to 1981, this map served as encouragement to find a way to protect some of the most ecologically and culturally significant places in America, ensuring that these lands remain wild and free for generations to come. He knew that once unsustainable industrial development and extractions took hold, there would be no way to reclaim them. In Alaska he saw life and land worth more left in a natural balance than mined and logged, drilled or developed. This was a place where the land provided, life was abundant, and where you could still cup your hand into the flow of a river, and drink clean water.
He wrote: “I've learned much about Alaska. For a long time, I mainly knew it through maps over which we poured, studied, and plotted, for hours at a time day after day in the conference room of the White House as we negotiated and planned our tactics in getting the legislation passed. Since then, I've had the chance to go to the tops of some of the mountains in the Brooks Range and onto the coastal region. I've stood in front of the migrating Porcupine caribou herd. I have been on a peninsula in the Beaufort Sea within a hundred yards of musk oxen circled facing outwards when they heard Rosalynn and me hiding behind some tundra. I have sat on a glacier and looked across a small valley at a herd of 32 Dall sheep. I've been very close to a den of wolves and seen them in their natural habitat. I’ve been within 100 yards of a mother grizzly. I’ve fished in Alaska several times, in the vicinity of Lake Iliamna and in other places.
I wrote my book, An Outdoor Journal, about the time I caught a rainbow trout, on a very small fly, that was 31 inches long and weighed 12 pounds. I've had some wonderful experiences in Alaska, as have many who live there.” [2]
The Most Ambitious Land Conservation Legislation in American History
It was in 1980 toward the very end of his presidency that Congress passed, and President Carter signed into law one of the most significant land conservation measures in our nation’s history: The Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act, known as ANILCA. The legislation is one of his greatest achievements in office. This legislation doubled the size of the country’s national park and refuge system and tripled the amount of land designated as wilderness.
ANILCA protected over 100 million acres of public lands and waters in Alaska as national parks, forests, and wildlife refuges, including 50 million acres designated as wilderness. [3] Protected lands included the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. At 19.6 million acres (the size of South Carolina), it is the largest national wildlife refuge in the United States. The Gates of the Arctic National Park and Preserve became the northernmost national park in the United States and covers over 8 million acres of pristine wilderness. Kobuk Valley National Park was established, which features the largest sand dunes in the Arctic. Other protected areas include the Bering Land Bridge National Preserve, the Noatak National Preserve, and the Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve, which is the largest national park in the United States and contains nine of the 16 highest peaks in North America.
ANILCA is the largest conservation act ever achieved, while also protecting subsistence hunting and fishing rights– the way of life of the Indigenous communities of Alaska. [4]
December 2, 1980, a month after suffering a loss to Ronald Reagan in the presidential race, President Carter signed the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act. Carter Presidential Library and Museum, White House Staff Photographers Collection.
Upon signing on December 2, 1980, President Carter stated: “Never before have we seized the opportunity to preserve so much of America’s natural and cultural heritage on so grand a scale. . . . I’ve seen firsthand some of the splendors of Alaska. But many Americans have not. Now, whenever they or their children or their grandchildren choose to visit Alaska, they’ll have the opportunity to see much of its splendid beauty undiminished and its majesty untarnished.
Let us celebrate. The mountains. . . the rivers and lakes that harbor salmon and trout, the game trails of caribou and grizzly in the Brooks Range, the marshes where our waterfowl summer– all these are now preserved, now, and, I pray, for all time to come.” [5]
President Carter wrote: “Of all the things I've ever done, nothing exceeds my pride in having been committed to play a small part, at least, in the passage of this legislation. I am thankful that many people, including the members of Alaska's environmental organizations, are committed to continue the fight to preserve the national treasures of Alaska.” [6]
In 1990 President Jimmy Carter became the first and as yet only president to visit the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, along with his wife Rosalynn. They joined the author, environmentalist, and adventurer Debbie Miller and her youth daughters and her sister at their wilderness camp along the Okpilak River. President Carter wanted to meet the woman who wrote Midnight Wilderness: Journeys in Alaska’s Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (reissued in 2011 by Braided River). He wanted to be on the lands he worked so fiercely to protect.
Within this vast landscape, it was the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge that truly captured, and also troubled his heart.
The Arctic Refuge includes lowland tundra, freshwater wetlands, coastal marshes, mountains, and lagoons. More than 250 animal species rely on this intact wild Arctic ecosystem, including scores of migrating birds who rely on the food and abundant 24-hour light of summer to raise young before migrating thousands of miles to all fifty states, and six continents. The coastal plain supports hundreds of thousands of the migrating Porcupine [River] caribou herd, rare musk oxen, wolves, grizzly bears, and wolverines. Polar bear dens are found on the coastal plain. It is the traditional homelands to two indigenous communities—the Gwich’in Athabascans and Inupiats. Combined with adjacent Ivvavik and Vuntut National Parks in Canada, the Arctic Refuge is part of one of the largest protected ecosystems in the world.
While 8 million of the 19.5 million acres of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge were also designated as wilderness, due to political pressure during the ANILCA negotiations, the 1.5 million-acre coastal plain, the biological heart of the Refuge, was left unprotected. Although Section 1002 of ANILCA identifies the coastal plain as a special study area, a future Congress would have the authority to decide whether to designate it as wilderness, or open it for fossil fuel development. This is a special study area where the Department of the Interior is authorized to conduct biological and geological assessments of the region to determine its fate. [7]
Since 1980 there has been relentless debate about the future of the Arctic Refuge coastal plain. Jimmy Carter has publicly acknowledged regrets that he let this Act pass under his signature without being able to successfully negotiate the future preservation of the coastal plain of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge.
He wrote: “I have learned since leaving the White House what a wise decision the U.S. Congress made in approving the ANILCA legislation. It was not perfect; we had to compromise to some degree, which is almost always the case with important legislation. My most grievous disappointment was that the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge was not completely protected. We still have an agenda to fulfill.” [8]
Throughout the remaining years of his life, he tirelessly advocated for permanent wilderness protection. He wrote in Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, Seasons of Life and Land: [9]
“The Arctic Refuge stands alone as America’s last truly great wilderness. This magnificent area is as vast as it is wild, from the windswept coastal plain where the polar bears and caribou give birth, to the towering Brooks Range where the Dall sheep cling to cliffs and wolves howl at the midnight sun.
One of the most unforgettable and humbling experiences of Rosalynn and my lives occurred on the coastal plain. We had hoped to see the caribou during our trip, but to our amazement, we witnessed the migration of tens of thousands of caribou and their newborn calves. In a matter of a few minutes, the sweep of tundra before us became flooded with life, with the sounds of grunting animals and clicking hooves filling the air. The dramatic procession of the Porcupine caribou herd was a once-in-a-lifetime wildlife spectacle. We understand firsthand why some have described this special birthplace as ‘America’s Serengeti.’
Standing on the coastal plain, I was saddened to think of the tragedy that might occur if this great wilderness was consumed by a web of roads and pipelines, drilling rigs and industrial facilities. Such proposed developments would forever destroy the wilderness character of America’s only Arctic Refuge and disturb countless numbers of animals that depend on this northernmost terrestrial ecosystem.
We must look beyond the alleged benefits of a short-term economic gain and focus on what is truly at stake. At best, the Arctic Refuge might provide 1 to 2 percent of the oil our country consumes each day. We can easily conserve more than that amount by driving more fuel-efficient vehicles. Instead of tearing open the heart of our greatest refuge, we should use our resources more wisely.
It will be a grand triumph for America if we can preserve the Arctic Refuge in its pure, untrammeled state. To leave this extraordinary land alone would be the greatest gift we could pass on to future generations.”
Indigenous leadership and activism
One point that is sometimes overlooked about ANILCA is that it is only because of the steadfast activism of the Indigenous peoples of the region that the legislation included subsistence rights language—something quite different and a major departure from most National Parks and other public land measures in the lower 48. Indigenous leaders including Gwich’in Jonathon Solomon organized other leaders in Gwich’in communities in Alaska and Canada as well as members of the Inupiat community in Kaktovik to oppose any measures that would open the coastal plain to oil drilling.
When one version of the legislation included an amendment authorizing oil exploration, Solomon traveled to Washington DC to voice strong opposition on behalf of the Arctic Indigenous peoples. The amendment was dropped, and instead, environmental allies especially from Alaska worked to ensure that language supporting subsistence rights was included in the final version of the bill. Instead of erasing Indigenous presence, ANILCA became a vital means to help sustain Indigenous ways of life. [10]
President Carter stated: “I believe the people of Alaska increasingly will realize that the legislation was designed to protect the integrity and the sovereignty of Alaska, as all other states have their sovereignty protected, that Native claims should be honored, and that the nation's jewels should be protected. It's an ongoing challenge for us all;, not just Alaska lands conservation interests, but interests that include the entire nation.” [11]
In an interview in 2017, President Carter was asked: “How important was it to you, personally, to make sure Native interests were protected?”
Carter replied: “It was crucial. Along with taking care of outdoor areas, I had pledged myself to a human-rights commitment. Natives were vulnerable to decisions made by government, and they would very likely have lost out on control of land that was dear to them without special attention from the president’s office. So that was a given, with Secretary [of the Interior Cecil] Andrus and me from the very beginning, that the rights of Natives would be honored. It was a top priority.” [12]
Joe Biden and Jimmy Carter. Office of Senator Joseph Biden, via Associated Press
Jimmy Carter and Joe Biden: A deep and enduring friendship
In 1976, a young Senator Joe Biden representing the state of Delaware traveled to Wisconsin to be the first sitting senator to endorse a largely unknown governor from Georgia– Jimmy Carter– for the presidency.
“Some of my colleagues in the Senate thought it was youthful exuberance,” Biden recalled in the documentary, “Carterland.” “Well, I was exuberant. But as I said then, ‘Jimmy’s not just a bright smile. He can win, and he can appeal to more segments of the population than any other person. All those years ago, Governor Carter proved me right. And in the years since, President Carter did a lot more than that. He showed us throughout his entire life what it means to be a public servant. With emphasis on the word ‘servant.’"
In an endorsement message for Joe Biden’s presidency in 2020, Jimmy Carter returned the compliment and called him his “first and most effective supporter in the Senate” and “my loyal and dedicated friend.”
He said “Joe has the experience, character, and decency to bring us together, and restore America’s greatness. We deserve a person with integrity, and judgment– someone who is honest and fair for what is best for the American people. Joe is that kind of leader, and he is the right person for this moment in our Nation’s history.” [13]
Caribou along the braids of the Okpilak River, Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. Photo by Florian Schulz.
A Lasting Environmental Legacy
“We still haven’t caught up with how large Carter’s environmental legacy is, but in the 21st century or the 22nd century, it’s going to be a much larger achievement because we would not have been able to save Alaska wilderness if it wasn’t for Jimmy Carter.” [14]
– Author and presidential historian Douglas Brinkley
In his 1988 memoir An Outdoor Journal: Adventures and Reflections Carter reflects on the importance of nature in his own life and the need to preserve it for future generations:
“I have never been happier, more exhilarated, at peace, rested, inspired, and aware of the grandeur of the universe and the greatness of God than when I find myself in a natural setting not much changed from the way He made it.”
President Carter's legacy in protecting the Alaskan Arctic and other natural areas will continue to inspire future generations to prioritize conservation and preservation in their own lives and work.
Below is a list of areas that were either created or altered by the Alaska National Interest Lands Claim Act. H.R.39: 96th Congress 1979/1980: Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act at Congress.gov
Admiralty Island National Monument
Aniakchak National Monument and Preserve
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge
Bering Land Bridge National Preserve
Cape Krusenstern National Monument
Chugach National Forest
Denali National Park
Gates of The Arctic National Park and Preserve
Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve
Katmai National Park and Preserve
Kenai Fjords National Park
Kenai National Wildlife Refuge
Kobuk Valley National Park
Lake Clark National Park and Preserve
Misty Fjords National Monument
Noatak National Preserve
Steese National Conservation Area
Tongass National Forest
White Mountains National Recreation Area
Wrangell–St. Elias National Park and Preserve
Yukon–Charley Rivers National Preserve
Yukon Delta National Wildlife Refuge
Yukon Flats National Wildlife Refuge
Photo by Rick Diamond, The Carter Center
[1] https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-environment/2023/02/21/jimmy-carter-environment-energy-alaska/
[2] The Wilderness Society Citizen's Guide to Alaska Native Lands Conservation Act, 2001.
[3] James Morton Turner, The Promise of Wilderness: American Environmental Politics since 1964, pages 174-75.
[4] Arctic Voices: Resistance at the Tipping Point edited by Subhankar Banerjee, pages 16, 350.
[5] Alaska’s Brooks Range: The Ultimate Mountains by John Kauffman, Mountaineers Books.
[6] The Wilderness Society Citizen's Guide to Alaska Native Lands Conservation Act, 2001.
[7] Turner, The Promise of Wilderness, pp. 176-178.
[8] The Wilderness Society Citizen's Guide to Alaska Native Lands Conservation Act, 2001
[9] Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, Seasons of Life and Land: Subhankar Banerjee, Mountaineers Books/Braided River 2003
[10] Finis Dunaway Defending the Arctic Refuge: A Photographer, an Indigenous Nation, and a Fight for Environmental Justice, pages 105-106.
[11] The Wilderness Society Citizen's Guide to Alaska Native Lands Conservation Act, 2001.
[12] ALASKA MAGAZINE: Authentic Alaska: An Interview with President Carter, Russ Lumpkin, June 15, 2017.
[13] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sFnmIkBsygI
[14] From the documentary, CARTERLAND.